Literacy, books, and education Roman Empire

1 literacy, books, , education

1.1 primary education
1.2 secondary education
1.3 educated women
1.4 decline of literacy

literacy, books, , education



pride in literacy displayed in portraiture through emblems of reading , writing, in example of couple pompeii (portrait of paquius proculo)

estimates of average literacy rate in empire range 5 30% or higher, depending in part on definition of literacy . roman obsession documents , public inscriptions indicates high value placed on written word. imperial bureaucracy dependent on writing babylonian talmud declared if seas ink, reeds pen, skies parchment, , men scribes, unable set down full scope of roman government s concerns. laws , edicts posted in writing read out. illiterate roman subjects have such government scribe (scriba) read or write official documents them. public art , religious ceremonies ways communicate imperial ideology regardless of ability read. although romans not people of book , had extensive priestly archive, , inscriptions appear throughout empire in connection statues , small votives dedicated ordinary people divinities, on binding tablets , other magic spells , hundreds of examples collected in greek magical papyri. military produced vast amount of written reports , service records, , literacy in army strikingly high . urban graffiti, include literary quotations, , low-quality inscriptions misspellings , solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites. in addition, numeracy necessary form of commerce. slaves numerate , literate in significant numbers, , highly educated.

books expensive, since each copy had written out individually on roll of papyrus (volumen) scribes had apprenticed trade. codex—a book pages bound spine—was still novelty in time of poet martial (1st century ad), end of 3rd century replacing volumen , regular form books christian content. commercial production of books had been established late republic, , 1st century ad neighbourhoods of rome known bookshops (tabernae librariae), found in western provincial cities such lugdunum (present-day lyon, france). quality of editing varied wildly, , ancient authors complain error-ridden copies, plagiarism or forgery, since there no copyright law. skilled slave copyist (servus litteratus) valued highly 100,000 sesterces.

reconstruction of writing tablet: stylus used inscribe letters wax surface drafts, casual letterwriting, , schoolwork, while texts meant permanent copied onto papyrus

collectors amassed personal libraries, such of villa of papyri in herculaneum, , fine library part of cultivated leisure (otium) associated villa lifestyle. significant collections might attract in-house scholars; lucian mocked mercenary greek intellectuals attached philistine roman patrons. individual benefactor might endow community library: pliny younger gave city of comum library valued @ 1 million sesterces, along 100,000 maintain it. imperial libraries housed in state buildings open users privilege on limited basis, , represented literary canon disreputable writers excluded. books considered subversive might publicly burned, , domitian crucified copyists reproducing works deemed treasonous.

literary texts shared aloud @ meals or reading groups. scholars such pliny elder engaged in multitasking having works read aloud them while dined, bathed or travelled, times during might dictate drafts or notes secretaries. multivolume attic nights of aulus gellius extended exploration of how romans constructed literary culture. reading public expanded 1st through 3rd century, , while read pleasure remained minority, no longer confined sophisticated ruling elite, reflecting social fluidity of empire whole , giving rise consumer literature meant entertainment. illustrated books, including erotica, popular, poorly represented extant fragments.

primary education

a teacher 2 students, third arrives loculus, writing case contain pens, ink pot, , sponge correct errors

traditional roman education moral , practical. stories great men , women, or cautionary tales individual failures, meant instil roman values (mores maiorum). parents , family members expected act role models, , parents worked living passed skills on children, might enter apprenticeships more advanced training in crafts or trades. formal education available children families pay it, , lack of state intervention in access education contributed low rate of literacy.

young children attended pedagogus, or less female pedagoga, greek slave or former slave. pedagogue kept child safe, taught self-discipline , public behaviour, attended class , helped tutoring. emperor julian recalled pedagogue mardonius, eunuch slave reared him age of 7 15, affection , gratitude. usually, however, pedagogues received little respect.

primary education in reading, writing, , arithmetic might take place @ home privileged children parents hired or bought teacher. others attended school public, though not state-supported, organized individual schoolmaster (ludimagister) accepted fees multiple parents. vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in home- or public-schooling. schools became more numerous during empire, , increased opportunities children acquire education. school held regularly in rented space, or in available public niche, outdoors. boys , girls received primary education ages 7 12, classes not segregated grade or age. socially ambitious, bilingual education in greek latin must.

quintilian provides extensive theory of primary education in latin literature. according quintilian, each child has in-born ingenium, talent learning or linguistic intelligence ready cultivated , sharpened, evidenced young child s ability memorize , imitate. child incapable of learning rare. quintilian, ingenium represented potential best realized in social setting of school, , argued against homeschooling. recognized importance of play in child development, , disapproved of corporal punishment because discouraged love of learning—in contrast practice in roman primary schools of routinely striking children cane (ferula) or birch rod being slow or disruptive.

secondary education

mosaic pompeii depicting academy of plato

at age of 14, upperclass males made rite of passage adulthood, , began learn leadership roles in political, religious, , military life through mentoring senior member of family or family friend. higher education provided grammatici or rhetores. grammaticus or grammarian taught greek , latin literature, history, geography, philosophy or mathematics treated explications of text. rise of augustus, contemporary latin authors such vergil , livy became part of curriculum. rhetor teacher of oratory or public speaking. art of speaking (ars dicendi) highly prized marker of social , intellectual superiority, , eloquentia ( speaking ability, eloquence ) considered glue of civilized society. rhetoric not body of knowledge (though required command of references literary canon) mode of expression , decorum distinguished held social power. ancient model of rhetorical training— restraint, coolness under pressure, modesty, , humour —endured 18th century western educational ideal.

in latin, illiteratus (greek agrammatos) mean both unable read , write , lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication. higher education promoted career advancement, particularly equestrian in imperial service: eloquence , learning considered marks of well-bred man , worthy of reward . poet horace, instance, given top-notch education father, prosperous former slave.

urban elites throughout empire shared literary culture embued greek educational ideals (paideia). hellenistic cities sponsored schools of higher learning expression of cultural achievement. young men rome wished pursue highest levels of education went abroad study rhetoric , philosophy, 1 of several greek schools in athens. curriculum in east more include music , physical training along literacy , numeracy. on hellenistic model, vespasian endowed chairs of grammar, latin , greek rhetoric, , philosophy @ rome, , gave teachers special exemptions taxes , legal penalties, though primary schoolmasters did not receive these benefits. quintilian held first chair of grammar. in eastern empire, berytus (present-day beirut) unusual in offering latin education, , became famous school of roman law. cultural movement known second sophistic (1st–3rd century ad) promoted assimilation of greek , roman social, educational, , aesthetic values, , greek proclivities nero had been criticized regarded time of hadrian onward integral imperial culture.

educated women

portrait of literary woman pompeii (ca. 50 ad)

literate women ranged cultured aristocrats girls trained calligraphers , scribes. girlfriends addressed in augustan love poetry, although fictional, represent ideal desirable woman should educated, well-versed in arts, , independent frustrating degree. education seems have been standard daughters of senatorial , equestrian orders during empire. highly educated wife asset socially ambitious household, 1 martial regards unnecessary luxury.

the woman achieved greatest prominence in ancient world learning hypatia of alexandria, educated young men in mathematics, philosophy, , astronomy, , advised roman prefect of egypt on politics. influence put conflict bishop of alexandria, cyril, may have been implicated in violent death in 415 @ hands of christian mob.

decline of literacy

literacy began decline, perhaps dramatically, during socio-political crisis of third century. although church fathers well-educated, regarded classical literature dangerous, if valuable, , reconstrued through moralizing , allegorical readings. julian, emperor after conversion of constantine reject christianity, banned christians teaching classical curriculum, on grounds might corrupt minds of youth.

while book roll had emphasized continuity of text, codex format encouraged piecemeal approach reading means of citation, fragmented interpretation, , extraction of maxims. in 5th , 6th centuries, reading became rarer within church hierarchy.

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