Recreation and spectacles Roman Empire

wall painting depicting sports riot @ amphitheatre of pompeii, led banning of gladiator combat in town

when juvenal complained roman people had exchanged political liberty bread , circuses , referring state-provided grain dole , circenses, events held in entertainment venue called circus in latin. largest such venue in rome circus maximus, setting of horse races, chariot races, equestrian troy game, staged beast hunts (venationes), athletic contests, gladiator combat, , historical re-enactments. earliest times, several religious festivals had featured games (ludi), horse , chariot races (ludi circenses). although entertainment value tended overshadow ritual significance, races remained part of archaic religious observances pertained agriculture, initiation, , cycle of birth , death.

under augustus, public entertainments presented on 77 days of year; reign of marcus aurelius, number of days had expanded 135. circus games preceded elaborate parade (pompa circensis) ended @ venue. competitive events held in smaller venues such amphitheatre, became characteristic roman spectacle venue, , stadium. greek-style athletics included footraces, boxing, wrestling, , pancratium. aquatic displays, such mock sea battle (naumachia) , form of water ballet , presented in engineered pools. state-supported theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on temple steps or in grand stone theatres, or in smaller enclosed theatre called odeum.

a victor in four-horse chariot

circuses largest structure regularly built in roman world, though greeks had own architectural traditions purposed hippodrome. flavian amphitheatre, better known colosseum, became regular arena blood sports in rome after opened in 80 ad. circus races continued held more frequently. circus maximus seat around 150,000 spectators, , colosseum 50,000 standing room 10,000 more. many roman amphitheatres, circuses , theatres built in cities outside italy visible ruins today. local ruling elite responsible sponsoring spectacles , arena events, both enhanced status , drained resources.

the physical arrangement of amphitheatre represented order of roman society: emperor presiding in opulent box; senators , equestrians watching advantageous seats reserved them; women seated @ remove action; slaves given worst places, , else packed in-between. crowd call outcome booing or cheering, emperor had final say. spectacles become sites of social , political protest, , emperors had deploy force put down crowd unrest, notoriously @ nika riots in year 532, when troops under justinian slaughtered thousands.

the zliten mosaic, dining room in present-day libya, depicts series of arena scenes: top, musicians playing roman tuba, water pipe organ , 2 horns; 6 pairs of gladiators 2 referees; 4 beast fighters; , 3 convicts condemned beasts

the chariot teams known colours wore, blues , greens popular. fan loyalty fierce , @ times erupted sports riots. racing perilous, charioteers among celebrated , well-compensated athletes. 1 star of sport diocles, lusitania (present-day portugal), raced chariots 24 years , had career earnings of 35 million sesterces. horses had fans too, , commemorated in art , inscriptions, name. design of roman circuses developed assure no team had unfair advantage , minimize collisions (naufragia, shipwrecks ), nonetheless frequent , spectacularly satisfying crowd. races retained magical aura through association chthonic rituals: circus images considered protective or lucky, curse tablets have been found buried @ site of racetracks, , charioteers suspected of sorcery. chariot racing continued byzantine period under imperial sponsorship, decline of cities in 6th , 7th centuries led eventual demise.

the romans thought gladiator contests had originated funeral games , sacrifices in select captive warriors forced fight expiate deaths of noble romans. of earliest styles of gladiator fighting had ethnic designations such thracian or gallic . staged combats considered munera, services, offerings, benefactions , distinct festival games (ludi).

throughout 40-year reign, augustus presented 8 gladiator shows in total of 10,000 men fought, 26 staged beast hunts resulted in deaths of 3,500 animals. mark opening of colosseum, emperor titus presented 100 days of arena events, 3,000 gladiators competing on single day. roman fascination gladiators indicated how depicted on mosaics, wall paintings, lamps, , graffiti drawings.

gladiators trained combatants might slaves, convicts, or free volunteers. death not necessary or desirable outcome in matches between these highly skilled fighters, training represented costly , time-consuming investment. contrast, noxii convicts sentenced arena little or no training, unarmed, , no expectation of survival. physical suffering , humiliation considered appropriate retributive justice crimes had committed. these executions staged or ritualized re-enactments of myths, , amphitheatres equipped elaborate stage machinery create special effects. tertullian considered deaths in arena nothing more dressed-up form of human sacrifice.

modern scholars have found pleasure romans took in theatre of life , death 1 of more difficult aspects of civilization understand , explain. younger pliny rationalized gladiator spectacles people, way inspire them face honourable wounds , despise death, exhibiting love of glory , desire victory in bodies of slaves , criminals . romans such seneca critical of brutal spectacles, found virtue in courage , dignity of defeated fighter rather in victory—an attitude finds fullest expression christians martyred in arena. martyr literature, however, offers detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering , , became popular genre @ times indistinguishable fiction.

personal training , play

boys , girls playing ball games (2nd century relief louvre)

in plural, ludi refers large-scale spectator games. singular ludus, play, game, sport, training, had wide range of meanings such word play, theatrical performance, board game, primary school, , gladiator training school (as in ludus magnus, largest such training camp @ rome).

activities children , young people included hoop rolling , knucklebones (astragali or jacks ). sarcophagi of children show them playing games. girls had dolls, typically 15–16 cm tall jointed limbs, made of materials such wood, terracotta, , bone , ivory. ball games include trigon, required dexterity, , harpastum, rougher sport. pets appear on children s memorials , in literature, including birds, dogs, cats, goats, sheep, rabbits , geese.

so-called bikini girls mosaic villa del casale, roman sicily, 4th century

after adolescence, physical training males of military nature. campus martius exercise field young men developed skills of horsemanship , warfare. hunting considered appropriate pastime. according plutarch, conservative romans disapproved of greek-style athletics promoted fine body own sake, , condemned nero s efforts encourage gymnastic games in greek manner.

some women trained gymnasts , dancers, , rare few female gladiators. famous bikini girls mosaic shows young women engaging in apparatus routines might compared rhythmic gymnastics. women in general encouraged maintain health through activities such playing ball, swimming, walking, reading aloud (as breathing exercise), riding in vehicles, , travel.

stone game board aphrodisias: boards made of wood, deluxe versions in costly materials such ivory; game pieces or counters bone, glass, or polished stone, , might coloured or have markings or images

people of ages played board games pitting 2 players against each other, including latrunculi ( raiders ), game of strategy in opponents coordinated movements , capture of multiple game pieces, , xii scripta ( twelve marks ), involving dice , arranging pieces on grid of letters or words. game referred alea (dice) or tabula (the board), emperor claudius notoriously addicted, may have been similar backgammon, using dice-cup (pyrgus). playing dice form of gambling disapproved of, popular pastime during december festival of saturnalia carnival, norms-overturned atmosphere.

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