History Roman Empire

the augustus of prima porta

(early 1st century ad)



bust of tiberius julius sauromates ii (d. 210 ad), ruler of bosporan kingdom in roman crimea, 1 of rome s client states

rome had begun expanding shortly after founding of republic in 6th century bc, though did not expand outside italian peninsula until 3rd century bc. then, empire long before had emperor. roman republic not nation-state in modern sense, network of towns left rule (though varying degrees of independence roman senate) , provinces administered military commanders. ruled, not emperors, annually elected magistrates (roman consuls above all) in conjunction senate. various reasons, 1st century bc time of political , military upheaval, led rule emperors. consuls military power rested in roman legal concept of imperium, literally means command (though typically in military sense). occasionally, successful consuls given honorary title imperator (commander), , origin of word emperor (and empire) since title (among others) bestowed emperors upon accession.

rome suffered long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies , civil wars late second century bc onwards, while extending power beyond italy. period of crisis of roman republic. towards end of era, in 44 bc, julius caesar briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated. faction of assassins driven rome , defeated @ battle of philippi in 42 bc army led mark antony , caesar s adopted son octavian. antony , octavian s division of roman world between did not last , octavian s forces defeated of antony , cleopatra @ battle of actium in 31 bc. in 27 bc senate , people of rome made octavian princeps ( first citizen ) proconsular imperium, beginning principate (the first epoch of roman imperial history, dated 27 bc ad 284), , gave him name augustus ( venerated ). though old constitutional machinery remained in place, augustus came predominate it. although republic stood in name, contemporaries of augustus knew veil , augustus had meaningful authority in rome. since rule ended century of civil wars , began unprecedented period of peace , prosperity, loved came hold power of monarch de facto if not de jure. during years of rule, new constitutional order emerged (in part organically , in part design), that, upon death, new constitutional order operated before when tiberius accepted new emperor. 200 years began augustus s rule traditionally regarded pax romana ( roman peace ). during period, cohesion of empire furthered degree of social stability , economic prosperity rome had never before experienced. uprisings in provinces infrequent, put down mercilessly , swiftly when occurred. sixty years of jewish–roman wars in second half of 1st century , first half of 2nd century exceptional in duration , violence.

the success of augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession limited outliving number of talented potential heirs. julio-claudian dynasty lasted 4 more emperors—tiberius, caligula, claudius , nero—before yielded in 69 ad strife-torn year of 4 emperors, vespasian emerged victor. vespasian became founder of brief flavian dynasty, followed nerva–antonine dynasty produced 5 emperors : nerva, trajan, hadrian, antoninus pius , philosophically-inclined marcus aurelius. in view of greek historian dio cassius, contemporary observer, accession of emperor commodus in 180 ad marked descent kingdom of gold 1 of rust , iron —a famous comment has led historians, notably edward gibbon, take commodus reign beginning of decline of roman empire.

in 212, during reign of caracalla, roman citizenship granted freeborn inhabitants of empire. despite gesture of universality, severan dynasty tumultuous—an emperor s reign ended routinely murder or execution—and, following collapse, roman empire engulfed crisis of third century, period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, , plague. in defining historical epochs, crisis viewed marking transition classical antiquity late antiquity. aurelian (reigned 270–275) brought empire brink , stabilized it. diocletian completed work of restoring empire, declined role of princeps , became first emperor addressed regularly domine, master or lord . marked end of principate, , beginning of dominate. diocletian s reign brought empire s concerted effort against perceived threat of christianity, great persecution . state of absolute monarchy began diocletian endured until fall of eastern roman empire in 1453.

diocletian divided empire 4 regions, each ruled separate emperor, tetrarchy. confident fixed disorders plaguing rome, abdicated along co-emperor, , tetrarchy collapsed. order restored constantine great, became first emperor convert christianity, , established constantinople new capital of eastern empire. during decades of constantinian , valentinian dynasties, empire divided along east–west axis, dual power centres in constantinople , rome. reign of julian, attempted restore classical roman , hellenistic religion, briefly interrupted succession of christian emperors. theodosius i, last emperor rule on both east , west, died in 395 ad after making christianity official religion of empire.

the roman empire 476

the western roman empire began disintegrate in 5th century germanic migrations , invasions overwhelmed capacity of empire assimilate migrants , fight off invaders. romans successful in fighting off invaders, famously attila, though empire had assimilated many germanic peoples of dubious loyalty rome empire started dismember itself. chronologies place end of western roman empire in 476, when romulus augustulus forced abdicate germanic warlord odoacer. placing himself under rule of eastern emperor, rather naming himself emperor (as other germanic chiefs had done after deposing past emperors), odoacer ended western empire ending line of western emperors.

the empire in east—often known byzantine empire, referred in time roman empire or various other names—had different fate. survived millennium after fall of western counterpart , became stable christian realm during middle ages. during 6th century, justinian reconquered northern africa , italy. within few years of justinian s death, byzantine possessions in italy reduced lombards settled in peninsula. in east, partially resulting destructive plague of justinian, romans threatened rise of islam, followers rapidly conquered territories of syria, armenia , egypt during byzantine-arab wars, , presented direct threat constantinople. in following century, arabs captured southern italy , sicily. slavic populations able penetrate deep balkans.

the roman (byzantine) empire c. 1263.

the romans, however, managed stop further islamic expansion lands during 8th century and, beginning in 9th century, reclaimed parts of conquered lands. in 1000 ad, eastern empire @ height: basil ii reconquered bulgaria , armenia, culture , trade flourished. however, after, expansion abruptly stopped in 1071 byzantine defeat in battle of manzikert. aftermath of important battle sent empire protracted period of decline. 2 decades of internal strife , turkic invasions paved way emperor alexios komnenos send call western european kingdoms in 1095.

the west responded crusades, resulting in sack of constantinople participants in fourth crusade. conquest of constantinople in 1204 fragmented remained of empire successor states, ultimate victor being of nicaea. after recapture of constantinople imperial forces, empire little more greek state confined aegean coast. roman empire collapsed when mehmed conqueror conquered constantinople on 29 may 1453.