19th century American philosophy

1 19th century

1.1 transcendentalism
1.2 darwinism in america
1.3 pragmatism

1.3.1 charles sanders peirce
1.3.2 william james
1.3.3 john dewey

19th century

the 19th century saw rise of romanticism in america. american incarnation of romanticism transcendentalism , stands major american innovation. 19th century saw rise of school of pragmatism, along smaller, hegelian philosophical movement led george holmes howison focused in st. louis, though influence of american pragmatism far outstripped of small hegelian movement.

other reactions materialism included objective idealism of josiah royce, , personalism, called boston personalism, of borden parker bowne.

transcendentalism

henry david thoreau, 1856



ralph waldo emerson, ca. 1857

transcendentalism in united states marked emphasis on subjective experience, , can viewed reaction against modernism , intellectualism in general , mechanistic, reductionistic worldview in particular. transcendentalism marked holistic belief in ideal spiritual state transcends physical , empirical, , perfect state can attained 1 s own intuition , personal reflection, opposed either industrial progress , scientific advancement or principles , prescriptions of traditional, organized religion. notable transcendentalist writers include ralph waldo emerson, henry david thoreau, , margaret fuller.

the transcendentalist writers desired deep return nature, , believed real, true knowledge intuitive , personal , arises out of personal immersion , reflection in nature, opposed scientific knowledge result of empirical sense experience.

things such scientific tools, political institutions, , conventional rules of morality dictated traditional religion need transcended. found in henry david thoreau s walden; or, life in woods transcendence achieved through immersion in nature , distancing of oneself society.

darwinism in america

the release of charles darwin s evolutionary theory in 1859 publication of on origin of species had strong impact on american philosophy. john fiske , chauncey wright both wrote , argued re-conceiving of philosophy through evolutionary lens. both wanted understand morality , mind in darwinian terms, setting precedent evolutionary psychology , evolutionary ethics.

darwin s biological theory integrated social , political philosophies of english thinker herbert spencer , american philosopher william graham sumner. herbert spencer, coined oft-misattributed term survival of fittest, believed societies in struggle survival, , groups within society because of level of fitness. struggle beneficial human kind, in long run weak weeded out , strong survive. position referred social darwinism, though distinct eugenics movements social darwinism associated. laissez-faire beliefs of sumner , spencer not advocate coercive breeding achieve planned outcome.

sumner, influenced spencer, believed along industrialist andrew carnegie social implication of fact of struggle survival laissez-faire capitalism natural political-economic system , 1 lead greatest amount of well-being. william sumner, in addition advocacy of free markets, espoused anti-imperialism (having been credited coining term ethnocentrism ), , advocated gold standard.

pragmatism

perhaps influential school of thought uniquely american pragmatism. began in late nineteenth century in united states charles sanders peirce, william james, , john dewey. pragmatism begins idea belief upon 1 willing act. holds proposition s meaning consequent form of conduct or practice implied accepting proposition true.

charles sanders peirce

charles sanders peirce, american pragmatist, logician, mathematician, philosopher, , scientist

polymath, logician, mathematician, philosopher, , scientist charles sanders peirce (/ˈpɜːrs/ purse ; 1839–1914) coined term pragmatism in 1870s. member of metaphysical club, conversational club of intellectuals included chauncey wright, future supreme court justice oliver wendell holmes, jr., , figure of pragmatism, william james. in addition making profound contributions semiotics, logic, , mathematics, peirce wrote considered founding documents of pragmatism, fixation of belief (1877) , how make our ideas clear (1878).

in fixation of belief peirce argues superiority of scientific method in settling belief on theoretical questions. in how make our ideas clear peirce argued pragmatism summed in later called pragmatic maxim: consider effects, might conceivably have practical bearings, conceive object of our conception have. then, our conception of these effects whole of our conception of object . peirce emphasized conception general, such meaning not set of actual, definite effects themselves. instead conception of object equated conception of object s effects general extent of conceivable implications informed practice. conceivable practical implications conception s meaning.

the maxim intended fruitfully clarify confusions caused, example, distinctions make formal not practical differences. traditionally 1 analyzes idea parts (his example: definition of truth sign s correspondence object). needful confined step, maxim adds further , practice-oriented step (his example: definition of truth sufficient investigation s destined end).

it heart of pragmatism method of experimentational mental reflection arriving @ conceptions in terms of conceivable confirmatory , disconfirmatory circumstances — method hospitable formation of explanatory hypotheses, , conducive use , improvement of verification. typical of peirce concern inference explanatory hypotheses outside usual foundational alternative between deductivist rationalism , inductivist empiricism, though himself mathematician of logic , founder of statistics.

peirce s philosophy includes pervasive three-category system, both fallibilism , anti-skeptical belief truth discoverable , immutable, logic formal semiotic (including semiotic elements , classes of signs, modes of inference, , methods of inquiry along pragmatism , critical common-sensism), scholastic realism, theism, objective idealism, , belief in reality of continuity of space, time, , law, , in reality of absolute chance, mechanical necessity, , creative love principles operative in cosmos , modes of evolution.

william james

william james, american pragmatist , psychologist

william james (1842–1910) original thinker in , between disciplines of physiology, psychology , philosophy. famous author of varieties of religious experience, monumental tome principles of psychology, , lecture believe.

james, along peirce, saw pragmatism embodying familiar attitudes elaborated radical new philosophical method of clarifying ideas , thereby resolving dilemmas. in 1910 pragmatism: new name old ways of thinking, james paraphrased peirce s pragmatic maxim follows:

he went on characterize pragmatism promoting not method of clarifying ideas endorsing particular theory of truth. peirce rejected latter move james, preferring describe pragmatic maxim maxim of logic , pragmatism methodological stance, explicitly denying substantive doctrine or theory anything, truth or otherwise.

james known radical empiricism holds relations between objects real objects themselves. james pluralist in believed there may multiple correct accounts of truth. rejected correspondence theory of truth , instead held truth involves belief, facts world, other background beliefs, , future consequences of beliefs. later in life james come adopt neutral monism, view ultimate reality of 1 kind, , neither mental nor physical.

john dewey

john dewey (1859–1952), while still engaging in lofty academic philosophical work of james , peirce before him, wrote extensively on political , social matters, , presence in public sphere greater pragmatist predecessors. in addition being 1 of founding members of pragmatism, john dewey 1 of founders of functional psychology , leading figure of progressive movement in u.s. schooling during first half of 20th century.

dewey argued against individualism of classical liberalism, asserting social institutions not means obtaining individuals. means creating individuals. held individuals not things should accommodated social institutions, instead, social institutions prior , shape individuals. these social arrangements means of creating individuals , promoting individual freedom.

dewey known work in applied philosophy of philosophy of education. dewey s philosophy of education 1 children learn doing. dewey believed schooling unnecessarily long , formal, , children better suited learn engaging in real-life activities. example, in math, students learn figuring out proportions in cooking or seeing how long take travel distances modes of transportation.